DS research

Equids are engaged in myriad types of work across the world, with contexts and industries varying widely between high-, middle- and low-income countries as classified by the World Bank. Through a comprehensive abstract search and literature review, we examined the usage and context of terms associated with working equids in high-income countries (HICs), upper-middle-income countries (UMICs), lower-middle-income countries (LMICs), and low-income countries (LICs). Analysis showed that the search term used was significantly associated with World Bank country income classification. All search terms except two returned a significantly higher number of papers for higher-income countries compared to lower-income countries. The two exceptions were “working equid” and “draft equid”, which returned significantly more papers for lower-income countries than higher-income countries. Both terms also returned papers from high-income and upper-middle-income countries, but these were always in the context of low-resource settings and rural or marginalised communities, of which we provide examples in the discussion. We propose that the term “working equid” should be used to describe “any equid engaged in physical labour that provides a significant or direct contribution to the economic livelihood, sustenance or support of the owner/user’s family, typically within a low resource setting”. Our review highlights the intricate interplay between socioeconomic factors and examines how equids are described in the literature. The lack of a universally accepted definition leads to challenges in policy formulation, resource allocation, and welfare standards development, particularly in LMICs and LICs where working equids are crucial to livelihoods. This study underscores the need for a more inclusive and comprehensive approach to terminology, advocating for future research to bridge linguistic and cultural gaps in understanding working equids globally. Such efforts are vital for equitable and effective welfare standards and policy development for these animals.

Objective

To clinically evaluate previously developed pain scales [Donkey Chronic Pain Composite Pain Scale (DCP-CPS), Donkey Chronic Pain Facial Assessment of Pain (DCP-FAP), and combined Donkey Chronic Pain Scale (DCPS)], including behavioural and facial expression related variables, for the assessment of chronic pain in donkeys.

Study design

Prospective, blinded clinical study.

Animal population

A group of 77 donkeys (34 patients and 43 healthy control animals)

Methods

Animals were assessed by two observers that were blinded to the condition of the animals.

Results

Both DCP composite pain scale (CPS), DCP facial assessment of pain (FAP) and resulting Donkey Chronic Pain Scale (DCPS) scores showed good inter-observer reliability (Intra Class Correlation (ICC) coefficient = 0.91, confidence interval (CI) = 0.86–0.95, p < 0.001; ICC = 0.71, CI = 0.50–0.83, p < 0.001 and ICC = 0.84, CI = 0.72–0.91, p < 0.001 respectively). All scores (DCP-CPS, DCP-FAP and the resulting combined DCPS) were significantly higher for patients compared to controls at all time points (p < 0.001 for all three scales). Sensitivity and specificity for identification of pain (cut-off value > 3) was 73.0 and 65.1% for DCP-CPS, while for DCP-FAP this was 60.9% and 83.3%, respectively. For the combined DCPS, sensitivity was 87.0% and specificity 90.9% (cut-off value > 6).

Conclusions and clinical relevance

The DCPS, based on behavioural and facial expression-based variables, proved a promising and reproducible tool to assess different types of chronic pain in donkeys. The combination of behavioural and facial expression-based variables showed the best discriminatory characteristics in the current study. Further studies are needed for refinement of these tools.

Donkeys with colic may have subtle clinical signs of pain that delay detection, so a methodical clinical examination is needed to make a diagnosis. Using donkey-specific pain scoring can be helpful in monitoring progress and responses to analgesia. Hyperlipaemia is often secondary to the underlying disease process, and will reduce the prognosis for successful treatment, so assessing triglycerides and treating any elevation alongside other required blood testing is necessary. Ultrasound evaluation is helpful in donkeys which are too small for safe palpation per-rectum, and serum and peritoneal lactate values may be useful in guiding prognosis. Surgical treatment of colic in donkeys has a poorer success rate that in the horse, largely due to delays in diagnosis and referral as a result of the lack of overt pain signs, postoperative complications and hyperlipaemia. Preventative care is often lacking in donkeys, so provision of regular routine dental management, routine parasite monitoring and control (including appropriate use of anthelmintics and dietary management to ensure a healthy body weight) are areas that veterinarians and nurses can assist with. Donkeys cope poorly with stress, so when undergoing treatment, any bonded companion should be kept close by.

Shifts from direct implementation to advocacy-based programming have been documented across many non-governmental organisation (NGO) sectors, including animal welfare. Semi-structured interviews with 32 staff from different positions within animal welfare NGOs explored recent programming changes. Maintaining a balance between direct implementation and advocacy-based activities emerged as a strong theme. The findings suggest that risks are associated with both the direct implementation status quo and transitioning to an advocacy-based focus. Risks of the former include treating symptoms rather than root causes of welfare problems. Organisational change can be disruptive and necessitates realignment of core competences, in turn influencing NGO mission. Identified risks of transition include loss of individuals whose values fail to align with new programming directions, increased upwards accountability requirements for accessing institutional donors and difficulties when phasing out direct implementation approaches. Whilst having to be dynamic, NGOs need to evaluate the risks associated with programming decisions, considering their vision, mission and staff identity in order to ensure that welfare programming is as effective as possible.

Background 

This is the first report of Besnoitia bennetti in donkeys in Ireland. B. bennetti, an apicomplexan protozoan parasite specifc to equids, is an emerging pathogen in Europe. This parasite forms chronic intracytoplasmic cysts in cells of the mesenchymal lineage, mainly fbroblasts, in the skin, sclera and mucosa. Clinical signs in afected equine hosts vary from mild to severe debilitating disease. Little is known of the phylogeny, epidemiology or transmission of B. bennetti infection in donkeys, mules or horses. 

Case presentation 

Two cases of besnoitiosis in donkeys are presented. Both donkeys were born and raised in the south west of Ireland. The first case was a 2.5-year-old donkey that had a suspect sarcoid removed, while the second case, a 2-year-old donkey, had a biopsy of nodular dermatitis of the muzzle. Diagnosis was made by histopathology and the parasite species, B. bennetti, was confirmed by PCR followed by sequencing and microsatellite analysis. Both donkeys had high antibody titres against Besnoitia spp. Small (0.5 mm) scleral, conjunctival and dermal cysts over the muzzle were subsequently observed in both animals. Treatment with trimethoprim sulfadiazine for 30 days did not lead to clinical resolution. The fndings are compared to the cases of besnoitiosis in donkeys reported in the past 10 years throughout Europe. 

Conclusions 

Besnoitiosis should be considered as a differential diagnosis for chronic skin disease particularly in cases of cutaneous masses, non-pruritic dermatitis, and dermatitis that is not responsive to treatment in donkeys and other equids. Future studies are needed to investigate the prevalence of the disease in Irish donkeys, the spread of the disease and the potential impact on the health and welfare of the donkeys.

The sustainability of NGO initiatives has become a criterion by which to judge the success of programming. This study explores the conditions needed in order to achieve sustainable change by focusing on a sector that has recently experienced this shift towards more sustainable, interdisciplinary programming: that of working equid (animal welfare) NGOs. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews with 32 NGO staff working for 8 different animal welfare NGOs across 13 countries were conducted. These interviews covered potential barriers and avenues to success in producing sustainable working animal welfare improvements. Thematic analysis revealed consistent themes across contexts and NGOs. Approaches perceived as creating sustainable outcomes were ones that tailored initiatives to local contexts, focused on changing human behaviour, worked with key community contacts, built capacity in local infrastructure, combined approaches, and had comprehensive exit strategies. Barriers to sustainability included lack of continuity, short funding cycles and unpredictable external factors. Consideration of these conditions for designing effective future initiatives is recommended across the wider not-for-profit sector.